Archive for the 'Writing' Category

Culture and Social Support as Determinants of Health of Chinese Canadians

Published on December 7, 2009 in Health & Society, Life, UBC and Writing. 4 Comments

Introduction

The increasing understanding and acceptance of multiculturalism in Canadian society results, in part, from Canada’s growing immigrant population. The proportion of visible minorities in Canada is on the rise, with a 13.4% increase between 1996 and 2001 (Statistics Canada, 2003). Since 1999, the majority of immigrants entering Canada have been Chinese, Indian, and Filipino (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2009). With a population of over one million, Chinese represent the largest group of visible minorities in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2003).

In 2008, 14% of permanent resident immigrants to Canada were “family class” immigrants from the Asia and Pacific region, many of whom had the potential to strengthen the social capital of their communities as skilled professionals (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2009). In that same year, nearly another 30% of permanent resident immigrants to Canada from the region were “economic” immigrants who were ready to invest in the Canadian economy (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2009). The impact of Chinese immigrants on Canada is profound. For example, with the influx of Chinese immigrants, the city of Richmond, British Columbia, has experienced a transformation in its ethnicity and neighbourhoods (Ray et al., 1997). Furthermore, from 1996 to 1998, Asian immigrants contributed significantly towards the investment of $831.5-million in Canada by economic immigrants (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 1999).

Chinese Canadians are an integral part of society, and this article examines culture and social support as determinants of health of Chinese in Canada. Culture strongly influences behaviour and cognition. This is especially important as individual concepts of health and illness are dependent on culture. Social support enables interpersonal interactions between individuals, which fosters caring relationships and improves health and quality of life. Cultural differences create meaning and influence methods for seeking social support. The interaction of culture and social support plays a role in determining the health of Chinese Canadians, and influences factors such as one’s likelihood to access the health care system and seek physical examination.

Definitions

Stein and Rowe (1989) define culture as a “[l]earned, nonrandom, systematic behavior that is transmitted from person to person [and] from generation to generation.” Culture is both systemic and systematic. It is systemic in that it interconnects with social systems, and systematic in that it is not random, but predictable and orderly. Serving both an integrative and functional purpose, culture can create a sense of identity and belonging, often aligning groups towards a specific cause or viewpoint.

According to Cassel (1976), social support offers “[f]eedback from a primary group that is health protective, during times of stress.” Social support is created through interpersonal interactions and can be experienced in the forms of emotional, informational, and instrumental support. For example, emotional social support being conversing with a friend; informational support being seeking health-related knowledge from neighbours; instrumental support being receiving financial support during times of economic hardship.

Mechanisms

The health beliefs of Chinese Canadians, especially those of the older generation, are categorised into three primary divisions: beliefs about traditional health practices, beliefs about traditional medicine, and beliefs about preventive diet (Lai & Surood, 2009). In a study, Lai and colleagues (2009) measured the health beliefs of older Chinese in Canada against a list of twelve statements on topics such as health maintenance, the use of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), and eating habits. The content of the questionnaire strongly reflects major traditional Chinese views of health (Lai et al., 2003). An example of such a statement is “[t]raditional Chinese herbal medicine can cure the root of the disease, whereas Western medications only cure the symptoms” (Lai & Surood, 2009).

The results of this study indicate that questions concerning diet, such as “soup is good for health,” and the use of TCM, such as “traditional Chinese herbal medicine has fewer side effects than Western medication,” reported high levels of agreement from Chinese Canadian participants (Lai & Surood, 2009). There was a strong correlation between younger age and stronger agreement with the use of TCM. As well, older Chinese Canadians with a lower level of education agreed more strongly with Chinese beliefs about overall health, traditional health practices, TCM usage, and traditional preventive diet (Lai & Surood, 2009). Furthermore, those born in Canada reported a lower level of agreement with traditional health practices, as compared to those born in Hong Kong (Lai & Surood, 2009). In contrast to the Western bio-medical model, these results suggest that Chinese Canadians view health and illness through a traditional holistic model, which directly influences their health.

The expressions and meanings of social support have been viewed as being specific to culture (Norbeck et al., 1997). Expressions of acceptable support, behaviours, and independent versus collectivist orientations are reflected by the impact of culture (Badr et al., 2001). Especially for new immigrants to Canada, networks of social support enable access to information, goods and services, and help maintain a connection with the country of origin (McMichael & Manderson, 2004). Stewart and colleagues examined social support in new Chinese immigrants to Canada, specifically assessing their definition and understanding of social support, methods of accessing social support, and differences in support-seeking methods and support resources (Stewart et al., 2008).

Stewart et al. (2008) found that social support is defined in a variety of ways by immigrants. While some described social support as any form of help or assistance, most incorporated specific examples in their interpretations and depended on past personal experiences (Stewart et al., 2008). Chinese immigrants related to the concept of social support as either formal assistance from the Canadian government — a familiar concept in China — or informal help from family and friends — the norm in a collectivist culture (Stewart et al., 2008). In particular, one subject stated that “most Chinese’s notion about help is something tangible” (Stewart et al., 2008). This study suggests that Chinese view social support primarily as a government responsibility, while also valuing support that is more practical in nature (Stewart et al., 2008). The authors concluded that “these perceptions reflected the inadequacies of existing formal supports for employment and social integration” (Stewart et al., 2008). Only by understanding social support through a cultural context can we further improve systems of support for immigrants to Canada, ultimately improving the health of the population.

Evidence

The effects of culture and social support interact to influence Chinese Canadians’ likelihood of accessing annual physical examinations. Lai and Kalyniak (2008) reported a lower rate of physical examinations in Chinese Canadians aged 55 years and older as compared to the rest of the Canadian population.

For this population, culture plays an important role in the use of annual physical examinations (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008). Many Chinese come from an environment where utilising preventive health measures was uncommon or inaccessible, and physician visits were only made when symptoms of illness become evident (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008). As a result, they may not be accustomed to or aware of the potential health benefits of a physical examination (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008). A lack of physicians or health care infrastructure in their homeland may further contribute to the lowered use of this preventive service (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008).

Social support was identified as a significant enabling factor that predicted the use of annual physical examinations in Chinese Canadians (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008). Enabling individuals to exchange information about the entitlement and benefits of using annual physical examinations, social support played an important role in facilitating better access to this preventive health measure (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008). For example, a lower rate of physical examination usage was associated with a decreased involvement in the Chinese community, highlighting a lack of social support (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008). As well, married individuals exhibited higher rates of physical examination usage, a reflection of the effect of stronger social support on accessing preventive health services (Lai & Kalyniak, 2008).

Intervention

In order to better understand the cultural variations that influence one’s beliefs towards health and illness, a greater emphasis on the cultural competence training of health care and human service professionals is necessary. For example, a study by Flores and colleagues (2000) shows the need for increased cultural competence training as none of the Canadian medical schools, at the time of the survey, offered a course that specifically addresses cultural issues. Through cultural competence training, by increasing one’s awareness, knowledge, skills, and encounters towards cultural-specific perspectives of health, a greater multicultural understanding can be accomplished in better serving the population.

At a macroscopic level, since culture influences the definition and understanding of social support, and because large groups of visible minorities such as the Chinese view social support as a government responsibility, it is important for policy makers to understand these influences in order to make the most appropriate decisions that lead to improvements in the health of the population. Social agencies would also benefit from understanding the significance of the forms of social support which particular cultural groups receive, as some value tangible support more greatly than other forms of support.

Conclusion

We have discussed culture and social support as determinants of the health of Chinese Canadians. By discussing the determinants’ definitions, mechanisms, evidence, and possible intervention, we have established a relationship between the determinants and the health of Chinese Canadians.

This article was examined through the conceptual frameworks of Interdisciplinary Health and Human Services (IHHS) 200 — Understanding the Sociocultural Determinants of Health — at the University of British Columbia, a course taught by Dr. Jim Frankish. Through this course, the author had an opportunity to understand the health of populations from a sociocultural perspective and interact with students and the instructor. Through learning about the determinants of health from a population level, the author has come to appreciate the impact of upstream factors on health: health care is but a small piece of the puzzle, and sociocultural determinants such as socio-economic status, early childhood development, and education have crucial roles to play. This course has truly broadened the author’s perspectives. From the numerous in-class videos to an opportunity for community service learning to discussions on equity in society, the author acknowledges that much was learned in a highly enjoyable manner.

Works Cited

Badr, H., et al. (2001). Weaving social support and relationships together. Personal relationships: implications for clinical and community psychology. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Cassel, J. (1976). The Contribution of the social environment to host resistance. American Journal of Epidemiology, 104(2).

Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (1999). Business immigration — program statistics 1998. Unpublished raw data.

Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2009). Facts and Figures 2008: Immigration Overview: Permanent and Temporary Residents. Ottawa, ON: Citizenship and Immigration Canada.

Flores, G., Gee, D., & Kastner, B. (2000). The Teaching of cultural issues in U.S. and Canadian medical schools. Academic Medicine, 75(5), 451-455.

Lai, D. W. L., & Kalyniak, S. (2005). Use of annual physical examinations by aging Chinese Canadians. Journal of Aging and Health, 17(5), 573-591.

Lai, D. W. L., & Surood, S. (2009). Chinese health beliefs of older Chinese in Canada. Journal of Aging and Health, 21(1), 38-62.

Lai, D. W. L., Tsang, A. K. T., Chappell, N., Lai, D. C. Y., & Chau, S. (2003). Health and well-being of older Chinese in Canada. Calgary, AB: Faculty of Social Work, University of Calgary.

McMichael, C., & Manderson L. (2004). Somali women and well-being: social networks and social capital among immigrant women in Australia. Human Organization: 1-30.

Norbeck, J.S., et al. (1997). A randomized trial of an empirically-derived social support intervention to prevent low birth weight among African American women. Social Science and Medicine, 43, 947–954.

Ray, B., Halseth G.,  & Johnson B. (1997). The changing ‘face’ of the suburbs: issues of ethnicity and residential change in suburban Vancouver. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, (21), 75–99.

Statistics Canada. (2003). Canada’s Ethnocultural Portrait: The Changing Mosaic. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.

Stein, P.L., & Rowe, B.M. (1989). Physical anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Stewart, M., Anderson, J., Beiser, M., Mwakarimba, E., Neufeld, A., Simich, L., & Spitzer, D. (2008). Multicultural meanings of social support among immigrants and refugees. International Migration, 46(3), 123-159.

Special thanks to Celine, David, Jay, and Aaron for their input.

Link: PDF Version

http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/analytic/companion/etoimm/contents.cfmhttp://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/analytic/companion/etoimm/contents.cfm

Newspaper Articles: A Sociological Perspective

Published on December 5, 2009 in Current Events, Life and Writing. 0 Comments

Culture

In “Commercialization of Art Broadens Its Impact,” Emily Ross discusses the increasing accessibility of art to the public and its potential to enrich our lives and communities. As common symbols of expression and creativity to all cultures, art is a culture universal and an integral part of our non-material culture. By highlighting its increasing accessibility to “lowbrow,” Ross has demonstrated the occurrence of cultural integration in our society, where high culture, popular culture, and even subculture such as “graffiti-inspired art” are moving towards a “general brow”, empowering and enriching our lives and communities.

Robert Worth examines the material culture of traditional Yemenis architecture in “After Shaking Off Medieval Sleep, Yemen Finds Dreamland of Architecture” from a multicultural perspective. Constructing buildings with traditional means not only preserves Yemen’s culture, but also support the beliefs and values that favour traditional methods, such as the cooling effects during summertime. Despite the cultural lag that occurs while modern shops occupy the “cultural heart” of the Old City, continuing means of employing traditional construction technology has ensured the cultural transmission of the building trade for “hundreds of years.”

Kathy Li authors “Vancouver Asian Film Festival” and explores its history, purpose, and significance in Vancouver. Discouraging the ethnocentric “martial arts stereotype,” Li examines the festival from a multicultural perspective that promotes better understanding of Asian culture in our society through a cultural relativist approach. Indeed, this film festival serves a purpose of cultural integration and broadens “Asian culture perspectives” beyond popular culture stereotypes.

In “Canadian Soldiers Wage a Subtle Battle in the Taliban Heartland,” Matthew Fisher reports on the Canadian military’s efforts of engaging the Afghan people through multicultural and cultural relativist means in order to achieve military goals. There appears to be a change in tactics, ones that contradicts the military’s believes and values of being “ready for war.” Despite an ideal culture of being “honest” with a presence to “assist,” Gwynne Dyer’s theories of socialisation suggest otherwise, where we understand that the real culture of the military is, in fact, more violent and aggressive, which leads us to the next topic on socialisation.

Socialisation

Gwynne Dyer wrote a strong and slightly satirical commentary titled “U.S. Radicalizing its Muslims.” The socialisation of Muslims in America into radical militants is the result of mass media coverage, peer group influences, and personality changes associated with the American invasion of Muslim countries. Dyer suggests that the U.S. media plays a role in the socialisation by avoiding the “obvious fact” that foreign invasions have repercussions. It can be argued that radicalised individuals have been gradually socialised by society, their peer group and significant others — in reaction to external events — to the extent that their personalities and superego have been altered to agree with more radical beliefs.

Charlie Savage discusses the implications of transforming an Illinois-based prison into a facility used to house detainees from the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in “Illinois Prison May Be Path To Closing Guantanamo.” If the plan is approved, the total institution would be effective in isolating inmates from the rest of society and maintaining manipulative control by administrative staff. The 200-cell compartments would maintain “strict control” of inmates, and with the aid of sophisticated surveilance equipment, it would strip away the inmate’s established identity. Furthermore, plans of converting the prison into an institution with a beyond-Supermax specification that allows “individual confinement and isolation” would be effective in reconstituting a new sense of self.

In an article titled “You Gotta Have Faith,” Amy Chan confronts the reality of rejections in relationships and advises readers to not accept a rejection by a significant other personally through accepting themselves as they are. George Herbert Mead states that interacting with others is key to developing a socialised self, which is often done through the exchange of symbols. In her article, Chan reveals personal coping strategies that were developed as a result of being socialised with multiple relationship failures. Chan’s subjective element of the self, the “I”, was initially full of doubt and uncertainty. However, she has come to realise, and now even advises others, that one ought to be accepting of the way one is — demonstrating an understanding of the self that requires imagining from the other’s point of view.

In “Twilight Relationship Unhealthy, Professors Says,” Sandra McCulloch disscuses the film’s implications of socialising young people. By portraying an “unhealthy relationships” between the sexes, the film allows young viewers to potentially engage in observational learning through imitation, play, and games. Since we refer to the generalised other in evaluating ourselves, the film’s popularity is able to socialise a large number of viewers into believing that relationships portrayed in Twilight are normal or part of widespread cultural norms. This article also addresses various other issues: gender and power imbalance; social interaction and roles; the mass media’s ability to influence; the degree to which popular culture defines our standards of acceptability for daily living.

Social Interaction in Everyday Life

Dr. Davidicus Wong shares his experience as a family physician in “Family Physicians Need To Innovate” and examines the evolving role of this profession as innovations are adapted. Despite having a high achieved status, family physicians are “overworked” and “undervalued.” In such a circumstance, the physician’s role changes as innovations are implemented to address problems. With such innovations, the physician’s role set would also contain the roles of the therapist and administrator. One wonders whether role strain would occur, and whether the social interaction between physicians and patients would change.

In his humorous article titled “We’ve Become a Land of Hand-Scrubbers”, Mitch Albom points out our increased use of hand sanitisers. Evidently, some role ambiguity is presented as one is no longer sure whether to shake hands or to simply “nod,” causing a disruption in everyday social interactions. Furthermore, from the perspective of ethnomethodology, we are made aware of handshakes, otherwise an unconscious and routine practice. When the handshaking convention is broken, we then realise, as Albom stated, that the “old ways” are gone and replaced by Purell.

Craig and Marc Kielburger highlighted the shortcomings of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in their article titled “Countries Ratified Rights of Children, but Things Haven’t Changed.” Particular examples in the article highlight the extreme role conflict children suffer from in countries where poverty and war are widespread. As these children are burdened with the ascribed statuses of soldiers, sex slaves, servants, and family heads, they are often associated with negative master statuses. Ultimately, their development and social construction of reality are severely impaired.

The concept of themed on-campus residences are explored in “AMS Looks at Installing Themed Housing,” by Victoria Biernacik. It is evident that such a change in residences, from a source of “partying” and “social distuption” into “hubs of interactivity” would affect a resident’s personal space and role. One’s personal space would be affected because learning would not only take place inside the classroom, but inside residences as well — a space most frequently associated with relaxation and privacy. Also, Dramaturgical Analysis suggests that one may behave differently according to the setting. It is likely that the residents will gain a role set comprised of the tenant, student, classmate, and even tutor.

Media

Brian Stelter addresses the role of MSNBC and its progressive hosts in challenging the policies of President Obama through “Opposition, From Right and Left.” Contrary to the Hypodermic Needle model of broadcasting, MSNBC engages its audiences through an approach that encourages active and critical thinking. This is supported by the Active Audience Theory, which states that viewers internalise a preferred meaning through active interpretations and understanding of the content. It can be argued that viewers of MSNBC take a negotiated audience position — taking some parts of the message but critically examining others. The article also notes that MSNBC will shortly be sold by General Electric to Comcast and raises the question, in today’s economically volatile world, of the political economy of the mass media and the possibility of continued vertical integration.

In a case where students were prosecuted for conducting investigative journalism that resulted in the exoneration of numerous men, David Carr discusses the story in “Prosecutors Take Aim At Student Muckrakers.” According to Chomsky and Herman’s Propaganda Model, the legal pressures experienced by these students represent a form of Flak. Evidently, the students’ work was directly against the prosecutors’ interests. By threatening the students with legal actions, prosecutors act as a media filter in hoping to discourage such investigative journalism.

David Akin describes Stephen Harper’s recent visit to India in “Harper To Meet India’s Leading Man Today” and examines his sophistication in embracing India’s popular media stars. By meeting with Bollywood celebrities and touring the studio of a popular Indian reality show, Harper’s message may resonate with Indian Canadians, depending on their means of negotiating meaning. Stuart Hall’s Cultural Studies Paradigm suggests that audiences use an ideological template to encode, decode, and negotiate meaning. Depending on one’s existing background knowledge of the situation, one may take the dominant, negotiated, or oppositional audience position.

As the print media faces dramatic restructuring, Richard Perez-Pena discusses the implications of Newsweek’s reform in “Glimmers of Progress At a Leaner Newsweek.” As revenue models change for Newsweek, a business “heavily dependent on advertising,” its advertising strategy follows. With Advertising as a key filter of the media in Chomsky and Herman’s Propaganda Model, one wonders the extent to which power dynamics will shift between advertisers and publishers, especially during a time of “unprecedented shift in the economics.”

Gender

In his article, Michael White introduces us to female bartenders in Vancouver who thrive in the craft despite a occupying a traditionally male-dominated position. As a social construct, gender consists of norms and expectations that encourage sex-appropriate behaviour. Some male bar-goers, unfortunately, hold conservative, patriarchal, and sexist values, and often look down upon, question, and challenge the gender role of females as bartenders. However, females are beginning to assume “authority”  in the craft as their gender role slowly changes.

Diana Coulter’s article, “Fair Game or Beyond the Pale? Indian Men Adopt the Skin-Bleaching Trend,” focuses on the increasing numbers of Indian men who seek cosmetic skin-bleaching treatment. In “The Body Beautiful,” Beverly Matthews claims that girls confirm to a degree of power structure through their personal appearances, which are used to achieve social goals. Indeed, one Indian customer agrees that even for men, there is “more competition to look presentable in the corporate world today,” which confirms with Matthews’ idea that personal appearance is used to achieve social status and power, and to avoid costs associated with deviating from the norm. As well, these men judge themselves by imagining how others would perceive them, through an Imaginary Audience.

In “Men’s Dirty Secret: We’re Lazy,” Micah Toub reveals the intimate power structure in the house between men and women that defines gender roles and determines the sharing of domestic work. Not generalising that all men are “lazy,” Toub discusses the “identity costs” (or lack of) for men to engage in house work while examining the male role as an individual gender role orientation. This suggests that beliefs about appropriate gender roles are developed through socialisation over a lifetime. As well, examining this relationship from the micro level gender structure, we see that there is a correlation in the female-male interaction between a man’s contribution to housework and child care and a women’s “sexual attraction” towards him.

In Larry Goldenberg and Barry Rich’s article titled “The Men’s Health Crisis in British Columbia,” the authors discuss the health crisis through exploring social determinants of health for men and addressing the need to improve men’s health. By recognising that larger “societal and cultural” factors affect men’s health, the authors examine this inequity through the macro structure level of gender analysis, where the concept of self examination needs to be advertised, and structural investments to male-defined-approaches to health made. As well, from the individual gender role orientation basis, the authors suggests that middle-aged men need to “model” for young boys in order to refine and encourage the role of self-care for men.

Mental Illness in Newspapers: Emerging Trends

Published on June 13, 2009 in Current Events, Health & Society, Psychology, UBC and Writing. 4 Comments

Newspapers carry an important responsibility in informing the general public of current issues. Being an inseparable part of the news media, they have been identified as a major source of information and misinformation regarding mental illness (Yankelovich). By analysing articles through various time periods and examining the portrayal of mental illness, we see that newspapers have gradually reduced society’s stigmatisation by embracing scientific knowledge and responding to changing societal values.

Newspaper depictions of mental illness strongly influence personal experiences and legislative policies. As a popular form of literary publication, newspapers attract a large number of readers from diverse demographic groups. Numerous studies have shown that with such an impact, these depictions directly affect attitudes of the general public (Slopen). This results in a profound effect on the lives of those with mental illnesses – from their interpersonal interactions and self-conceptions to the mental health system and its associated policies (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services).

Society’s current perception of mental illness is highly different from that of the past. From the Middle Ages to the turn of the millennium, definitions of mental illness and its associated imagery have undergone a fundamental transformation. During the medieval period, mental illness was associated with moral corruption and weakness of the mind – many patients were jailed as criminals, and some were even put to death (Corrigan). Hundreds of years later, as recently as 1974, doubts still existed about the reality of mental illness (Slopen). However, with rapid scientific advances, it is clear now that a mental illness refers broadly to the varying degrees of cognitions, emotions, and behaviours that interfere with interpersonal relationships and functions required for work, at home, and in school (American Psychiatric Association).

Newspapers must engage in investigative and objective reporting of mental illness due to its prevalence and devastating effects. Mental illnesses are common to all countries of the world and cause immense human suffering (World Health Organization). Patients are often the most stigmatised, disadvantaged, and vulnerable members of society. Despite being inconspicuous, mental illnesses will affect one in five Canadians at some point in their lives (The Globe and Mail). With the majority of these cases being depression and anxiety, Canada will lose, on average, 35 million workdays and $51-billion worth of productivity per year (The Globe and Mail).

Through our analysis of newspaper articles, we find that the coverage of mental illness has proceeded in a more positive direction. Based mainly on The Globe and Mail articles through four time periods – the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s – there are, increasingly, fewer associations being made between mental illness and crime, and more efforts underway to address and educate the public’s awareness.

In newspaper articles from the 1970s, almost all reports of mental illness depicted images of violence or lunacy. Little attention was paid to its medical and social roots. Rather, an overall negative and discriminative message was conveyed. Titles such as the following are representative of the the period’s reporting: “Man accused of killing policeman is schizophrenic, doctor tells court” (Keating), “Used sword, knife to kill his mother, man is found insane” (The Globe and Mail), “Policeman going nuts as unwelcome guest takes over his station” (Cleroux), “MD says treating delinquents could be waste of time, money” (The Globe and Mail).

Clearly, little effort was taken in the 1970s to explore and address the patients’ medical conditions and well-being. These highly misinforming, unsympathetic articles created false stereotypes and constructed an association between psychiatric patients and violence. Current scientific knowledge shows, however, that most people with mental illness are not violent. They are usually victims, as opposed to perpetrators, of crimes (Myers).

Beginning in the 1980s, a changing perspective emerged: newspapers started to explore the science and policy behind mental illness. Common misconceptions were being debunked. Newly-published research topics were being brought into public awareness. Articles even paved the way for debate on mental health policy and protection for the ill. Titles like these were common: “New research thrust for schizophrenia could save billions” (Leitch), “Many prisoners mentally ill, study shows” (Makin), “Amend Mental Health Act, coroner’s jury recommends” (The Globe and Mail), “Protection for schizophrenics” (Beeby).

The 1980s was a period of enlightenment for newspaper-reporting on mental illness. Not only were there fewer negative, stigmatising depictions, but there also arrived the realization of a need for open discussion. By addressing the health, social, and political concerns of mental illness in society, sufferers of mental illness were beginning to be seen as vulnerable human beings – those who are most in need of society’s support and protection.

Newspapers in the 1990s used a more interpersonal and humane approach to cover issues related to mental illness. This led the popular culture to become more accepting of sufferers, as actresses and politicians, alike, shared their personal encounters with mental illness, for the very first time. Numerous films were made, and novels written. Many of these fictional and non-fictional accounts received positive reviews from newspaper columns and ranked highly on best-seller lists. After nearly two decades since the discriminative depictions, the public was, for the first time, given an opportunity to step into the lives of those with mental illnesses. Indeed, this cleared the path for another style of reporting in the new millennium.

Upon entering the 21st century, at unprecedented levels, newspapers engaged the public in raising awareness about mental illness. Extensive coverage examined its biological, psychological, and social-cultural roots. By doing so, newspapers demonstrated a positive, educational role in increasing the public’s understanding of mental illness. This also significantly decreased misconceptions and effectively reduced the public’s stigmatising attitudes. For example, in late 2008, The Globe and Mail dedicated a special portion of the newspaper to addressing mental illness in Canada. This special series, “Breakdown: Canada’s Mental Health Crisis,” examined a multitude of cases, from Obsessive Compulsive Disorder to Schizophrenia. In the large number of case studies that were presented, numerous personal experiences were elaborated, in detail, as were the impact of these individuals’ mental illnesses on friends and family. This special series also discussed the latest treatment options, medical breakthroughs, and changing health-care environments – from prison-like asylums to modern medical facilities.

A constant increase in scientific understanding has led to the gradual destigmatisation of mental illness. Clearly, the changing perspective of newspapers on the reporting of mental illness has advanced at a rapid rate, leading to changes in public awareness. Research findings over time have increased our understanding of mental illness. For example, the medical perspective recognizes the need for a mental illness to be diagnosed on the basis of its symptoms and cured through therapy, including treatment in a psychiatric hospital (Myers). Recent discoveries, aided by devices like the Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner, have given us insight into the abnormalities in brain structure and physiological processes. Aided by the medical and technological breakthroughs, we are now able to treat many disorders medically.

Newspapers have also taken an active role in popularizing newly-published research articles, leading to increased public interest. Most newspapers have a special section dedicated to science and health, with many research findings being simplified and interpreted to aid public understanding. This allows the general public to remain updated with current scientific thinking – otherwise they may not have sufficient background knowledge to fully appreciate the information. By easing the understandability and popularizing the results of current research findings, newspapers have effectively increased public interest, paving the way for an increasingly open-minded public attitude towards mental illness.

These factors combined have led to a social-cultural change in the gradual understanding and acceptance of mental illness. Newspapers have not only raised public awareness, but have also allowed society, as a whole, to view the world from a different perspective. This has resulted in changing perceptions and the willingness to engage mental illness in society not as an avoided burden, but as an overdue issue with much attention needed.

Works Cited

“Amend Mental Health Act, Coroner’s Jury Recommends.” The Globe and Mail.Nov 11, 1989. p. A.17.

American Psychiatric Association. 4 June 2009. <http://www.psych.org/>

Beeby, June Conway. “Protection for Schizophrenics.” The Globe and Mail. Jul 31, 1989. p. A.7.

Cleriux, Richard. “Policeman Going Nuts as Unwelcome Guest Takes Over His Station.” The Globe and Mail. Sep 8, 1979. p. P.11.

Corrigan, P. W., Watson, A. C., Gracia, G., Slopen, N., Rasinski, K., Hall, L. L. “Blame, Shame, and Contamination: The Impact of Mental Illness and Substance Abuse on Family Members.” Journal of Family Psychology; 2006 Vol. 20 Issue 12, p239-246, 8p.

Keating, Michael. “Man Accused of Killing Policeman is Schizophrenic, Doctor Tells Court.”

The Globe and Mail. 16 May 1979 p. P.4.

Leitch, Carolyn. “New Research Thrust for Schizophrenia Could Save Billions.” The Globe and Mail. Dec 26, 1989. p. A.15.

Makin, Kirk. “Many Prisoners Mentally Ill, Study Shows.” The Globe and Mail. Nov 23, 1989. p. A.1.

“MD Says Treating Delinquents Could be Waste of Time, Money.” The Globe and Mail. Apr 5, 1978. p. P.11.

Myers, David G. Psychology Eighth Edition. New York: Worth, 2006.

Slopen, Natalie B., Watson, Amy C., Garcia, Gabriela, Corrigan, Patrick W. “Age Analysis of Newspaper Coverage of Mental Illness.” Journal of Health Communication, 12:3–15, 2007.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 4 June 2009. <http://www.hhs.gov/>

“Used Sword, Knife to Kill His Mother, Man is Found Insane.” The Globe and Mail. May 2, 1978. p. P.5.

Yankelovich, Daniel. Public Attitudes Toward People with Chronic Mental Illness: Final Report. Princeton, NJ : Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Program on Chronic Mental Illness, 1990.

Reclaiming the Night: an Essay

Published on June 4, 2009 in Health & Society, Psychology, UBC and Writing. 2 Comments

puppysleep

We, students, live in a sleep-deprived world. I can easily recall many dreadful early-morning classes – having rushed to a lecture before the sun had fully risen, sitting at a desk with a pounding headache, feeling warmer and warmer, eyelids becoming heavier and heavier. I was certainly not alone.

We, as complex biological systems, need to sleep. Sleeping protects us from predatory dangers of the night, allows our bodies to undergo maintenance, reinforces our learning and memory, and regulates our bodily growth (Myers). Doubtlessly, we would cease to exist without it. Yet, students, in particular, are burdened by the shadows of constant sleep-deprivation, at a time when our bodies and minds are rapidly maturing – a time when sleep matters the most. Therefore, in order to ensure our intellectual and bodily development, we must sleep earlier.

Having relatively longer periods of sleep will improve the intellectual development of students. Studies have shown that sleep is an important process in which learning is reinforced and retention of memory occurs (Weiten). By sleeping, our moods are boosted, memories strengthened, concentration increased. Having a better mood would encourage us to engage learning with a more positive attitude. With a stronger memory capacity, we would more easily understand and apply learned knowledge. As well, an increased concentration will allow us to better focus on and engage with learning. These factors combined would result in an obvious surge in our academic performance and intellectual development.

Not only is getting more sleep beneficial intellectually, but also developmentally. While sleeping, our bodies unconsciously work throughout the night to perform essential maintenance tasks such as cleaning out inhibitory neurotransmitters and releasing growth hormones. Research has shown that sleeping contributes to the moderation of hunger and obesity, and fortifies the disease-fighting immune system. By simply going to bed a few hours earlier each day, a great amount of stress and potential disease-causing factors can be eliminated, resulting in a stronger, more capable body to tackle challenges ahead.

There are numerous hazardous consequences for fighting against our biological clocks. Still, some may the question the true impact of sleep-deprivation. Take the example of our yearly spring-forward into Standard Time, where we loose merely one hour of sleep. Statistics have shown that there is, on average, a 7% increase in the number of single-car traffic accidents in Canada on the Monday after this time-shift. Some may still not be convinced. Immune system T-cells that fight off viral intrusions and cancer are suppressed by sleep-deprivation. Those who are chronically sleep-deprived are often outlived by those who get 7 – 8 hours of sleep per day. Older adults who do not suffer from sleep disorders live longer than those who do. Recent studies have also shown that chronic sleep debt alters hormonal and metabolic processes in a manner similar to the effect of obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment.

Only by sleeping earlier can we become more productive during the day and avoid falling into a negative cycle of working into the night. Not having enough time to study during the day is a common excuse for students to stay late into the night (or, in most cases, early into the morning). Some suggest that the day is simply too short for productive work, and that only by taking away precious sleeping hours can this false sense of productivity be accomplished. This is, mind you, a misconception. Those who are ineffective during the day are often sleep-deprived, to begin with. Not surprisingly, to compensate for this lack of day-time productivity, many resort to working late, thus falling into a miserable cycle of biological irregularity. However, there is hope. Absorbing more light during morning hours and less so during the evening will resynchronise our body clocks. Incorporating an early wake-time time with regular physical exercise into our daily schedules will also allow our bodies to drift into deep sleep easier, sooner.

Indeed, unnecessarily depriving ourselves of sleep is waging war against our intellectual and bodily development. To quote Herman Melville, we are all “but human”. Let us embrace this simple concept and grant our bodies the sleep that we badly deserve.

Works Cited
Myers, David G. Psychology Eighth Edition. New York: Worth, 2006.
Weiten, Wayne. Psychology: Themes and Variations. Denver: Wadsworth, 2003.

Deinococcus radiodurans: a radio-resistant bacterium with a multitude of applications

Published on May 17, 2009 in Health & Society and Writing. 6 Comments

Allan Bisnar, Garrett Hinchey, Eastwood Zhao
University of British Columbia; Biology 112
March 2009

In this report, the organism Deinococcus radiodurans is examined in detail, with a specific focus on its incredible resistance to radiation, as well as its ability to survive in a multitude of different environments.  Also covered are D. radiodurans gene and cell structure and a description of its metabolic systems.  Finally, specific qualities within the DNA of D. radiodurans are described in depth, particularly its damage resistance and ability to repair itself rapidly, and how these abilities can be used in both ecological and medical applications.

The Deinococcus genus consists of approximately 30 different species of bacteria and is derived from the Greek adjective, deinos, meaning strange or unusual (Cox et al. 2005). Spherically shaped, this berry-like bacterium is considered ‘strange’ due to its unique radiation-resistant ability (Daly 2009). As the first extremophile bacteria with a fully sequenced genome, Deinococcus radiodurans has been extensively studied and published in a number of scientific journals (Kim et al. 2002). With numerous potential health and ecological applications, our research into D. radiodurans looks into the the physical and chemical significance of this organism and its importance for further research.

Deinococcus radiodurans is a tetrad-forming extremophile bacterium, 1-2um in size, found in a wide variety of conditions. From soils in highly radioactive nuclear-waste sites and the Alps to desert substratum and Antarctic ice, this bacterium has been found in a wide range of extreme environments (Daly 2009). D. radiodurans is also characterized as a polyextromophile, with remarkable resistance to a range of severe damage-causing agents, including ionizing radiation, desiccation, ultra-violet radiation, oxidizing agents, and electrophilic mutagens (Kim et al. 2002). Though this organism is able to survive in highly uninhabitable conditions, oxygen and organic sources of nutrients such as amino acids, sugars are still required for growth, survival, and reproduction (Makarova et al. 2001). As an obligate aerobe and heterotroph, D. radiodurans cannot produce food for itself and must rely on the environment for sources of energy, using similar, yet less diverse metabolic pathways to that of Escherichia coli (Makarova et al. 2001). D. radiodurans do not possess as many enzymes or genes as do E. coli, however D. radiodurans possess genes that code for enzymes that are more complex and efficient (Markarova et al. 2001).

The genome of D. radiodurans contains many genes that are also present in other organisms, where they are expressed to partake in metabolic processes (Makarova et al. 2001). However, D. radiodurans does not express these genes for metabolic needs, and their function is still unclear (Makarova et al. 2001). For example, D. radiodurans has two functional genes that are responsible for ammonia utilization — glutamate ammonia ligase and carbamoyl-phosphate synthase (Makarova et al. 2001). Despite the presence of these genes, it has been determined through experiments that D. radiodurans does not utilize ammonia present in the soil as a nitrogen source (Makarova et al. 2001). Rather, D. radiodurans consumes sulfur-containing amino acids as an effective source of nitrogen (Makarova et al. 2001). Because it would seem energetically unfavorable for D. radiodurans to express both ammonia-catalyzing genes, there must be alternative explanations as to what the significance of these enzymes are, and whether these genes will be secondarily lost over time due to evolution.

D. radiodurans possesses genes for various metabolic pathways responsible for the catalysis and consumption of glucose, including glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate shunt, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, among many others (Makarova et al. 2001). A distinct feature of the organism is its vacuolar-type (V-type) membrane-bound ATP synthase (Makarova et al. 2001).  This type of protein is more prevalent in eukaryotes and archaea, while eubacteria possess F1/Fo ATP synthase (Makarova et at. 2001).

D. radiodurans is a Gram-positive bacterium (Cuypers et al. 2007). Its cell envelope is unusual both in terms of structure and composition, giving the organism Gram-negative characteristics (Makarova et al. 2001). Unlike other Gram-positive bacteria, D. radiodurans possesses at least 6 distinct layers of membranes, including the plasma membrane, the peptidoglycan-containing cell wall, a compartmentalized membrane layer, the outer membrane, an electrolucent zone, and a layer of hexagonally-packed protein subunits known as the S-layer (Makarova et al. 2001). There are H+/Na+ antiporter proteins in the membranes of D. radiodurans, which suggest that this bacterium cannot make acidic phospholipids due to its lacking of a gene common to most other bacteria, one that codes for phosphatidylglycerophosphate synthase (Makarova et al. 2001).

One feature that distinguishes Deinococcus radiodurans apart from all other bacteria is its unique resistance to ionizing radiation, that is, radiation that has sufficient energy to ionize molecules (Cox et al. 2005). When D. radiodurans is subjected to high levels of ionizing radiation, hundreds of double-strands are broken within the genome (Cox et al. 2005). However, before the next cycle of cell division begins, the genome is accurately reassembled, aided by both passive and enzymatic processes (Cox et al. 2005). It has been suggested that the desiccation tolerance of D. radiodurans contributes to a resistance to lethal ionizing radiation (Cox et al. 2005).

There are a number of passive mechanisms that contribute to Deinococcus radiodurans’ resistance to ionizing radiation. D. radiodurans has no less than four copies of its genome present within the cell, which decreases the probability of a gene being inactivated by radiation, therefore increasing the cell’s chance of survival (Cox et al. 2005). One hypothesis is that genome redundancy contributes to the radiation resistance of the Deinococcus species (Cox et al. 2005). Another, more controversial hypothesis is that the tightly structured, ring-like nucleoids of D. radiodurans passively contribute to the organism’s radioresistance by continuing to maintain the linear continuity of the genome even when fragmentation has occurred (Cox et al. 2005). Furthermore, experiments have shown that the presence of Manganese(II) contributes to the condensation of the D. radiodurans genome, neutralizing the repulsing effects of the phosphate backbone and enabling the organism to better tolerate radiation (Cox et al. 2005).

Within a few hours following a high dose treatment of ionizing radiation, Deinococcus radiodurans is able to repair all of the genomic double-strand breaks that have occurred with a 100% rate of survival and 0% rate of mutagenesis (Nitzan et al. 1999). The enzymatic processes fixing the genomic breaks are extensive and highly complex. Immediately following radiation exposure, a noticeable period is observed where the organism’s growth and division is inhibited due to limited fragmentation of the chromosomal DNA (Makarova et al. 2001). After 1.5 hours, the RecA-dependent repair process begins, initiating a phase where one-third of the double-strands will be repaired (Cox et al. 2005). This process becomes more important several hours later, where it predominates in the process of genome reformation (Cox et al. 2005).  Other large numbers of phenotypes are also directly responsible for genome repair through the processes of DNA end-protection, RecA-independent double-strand-break repair, and recombinational DNA repair, where DdrA and other proteins bind to the ends of exposed DNA to prevent nuclease digestion (Cox et al. 2005). Breaks in the condensed chromosome are repaired by using redundant genome information (Cox et al. 2005).

Unlike other deinobacterial species, Deinococcus radiodurans possesses DNA that is easily manipulated via genetic engineering processes due to its natural ability to transform by both high-molecular-weight chromosomal DNA and plasmid DNA (Makarova et al. 2001). This creates many possibilities for genetic research for both medical and ecological applications. Deinococcus radiodurans has a very powerful ability to accurately fix DNA breaks after being exposed to a mutagen. If we could better understand the function behind this efficient mechanism, we may be able to find and devise cures for many genetic diseases, including those associated with chromosome breaks and misalignment.  Another possible application of this organism’s unique abilities involve potentially genetically engineering D. Radiodurans to metabolize radioactive chemicals, therefore assisting with the removal of nuclear waste.  By ensuring research continues on the many functions of D. Radiodurans, not only will we gain a further appreciation of its incredibly unique characteristics, but also realize its immense potential in a wide variety of scientific applications.

Works Cited

Cox, M.M., and Bassista, J.R.  2005. Deinococcus radiodurans — the consummate survivor.  Nature reviews. Microbiology, (11): 882–92.

Cuypers, M.G., Mitchell, E.P., Romão, C.V., McSweeney, S.M.  2007. The Crystal Structure of the Dps2 from Deinococcus radiodurans Reveals an Unusual Pore Profile with a Non-specific Metal Binding Site.  Journal of Molecular Biology. 371, 787-799.

Daly, M.J.  2009.  A new perspective on radiation resistance based on Deinococcus radiodurans.  Nature Reviews Microbiology.  7: 237-45.

Kim, J., Sharma, A.K., Abbott, S.N., Wood, E.A., Dwyer, D.W., Jambura, A., Minton, K.W., Inman, R.B., Daly, M.J., Cox, M.M.  2002.  RecA Protein from the Extremely Radioresistant Bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans: Expression, Purification, and Characterization.  Journal of Bacteriology.  184(6): 1649-60.

Makarova, K.S., Aravind, L., Wolf, Y.I., Tatusov, R.L., Minton, K.W., Koonin, E.V., Daly, M.J.  2001.  Genome of the Extremely Radiation-Resistant Bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans Viewed from the Perspective of Comparative Genomics.  Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.  65(1): 44-79.

Nitzan Y., and Ashkenazi H.  1999.  Photoinactivation of Deinococcus radiodurans: An Unusual Gram-Positive Microorganism.  Photochemistry and Photobiology.  69(4): 505-51.